Economics

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The distribution of vital natural resources on the earth is unequal. Countries have varying climates, resource endowment and topography which may sustain some (but not all) of the goods and services necessary for survival. Trade compensates for these differences, leading to improvements in allocative efficiency and increased world production, thus allowing individuals to consume a larger and more diverse collection of goods and services. Despite these advantages, trade protection is still common among governments. Trade protection takes the form of tariff and non-tariff barriers. The traditional arguments in favour of protection are critically evaluated and so to are the new protectionist theories which have received fresh attention in the literature recently (Brander and Spencer, 187; Krugman 187; Grilli et al., 10; Salvatore, 187).Forms of ProtectionTariffs are a tax levied on imports to restrict their inflow by raising their price. Higher prices encourage domestic firms to expand production; thus tariffs also serve as a domestic subsidy. A partial equilibrium analysis of the effects of a tariff is given below.Figure 1

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Effects of a TariffAdapted from Vousden (10, )Before the tariff, the price of the good is PW; hence the quantity demanded is q5 (Figure 1). The amount of the good produced domestically is q1; therefore this country would have to import q1 to q5. A tariff is imposed represented by Pt-Pw. The domestic price of the good has risen, reducing domestic demand for imports. Quantity demanded falls to q4 while domestic production increases to q. Imports are subsequently reduced to q - q4. Welfare is transferred away from consumers (areas a, b, c and d) to producers in the form of profit (area a) and the government in the form of taxation revenue (area c). The other consumer welfare losses (area b and d) depict the decrease in consumption of imports caused by the increase in price. The tax has distorted choice so that consumers purchase an inferior good that would not have been purchased in the absence of a tax.GATT has driven down tariff barriers and to maintain protection levels, countries have resorted to non-tariff barriers such as quotas, voluntary export restraints (VERs) and export subsidies. Quotas limit imports by specifying the maximum amount of foreign-produced goods that will be permitted into the country over a specified period of time. Quotas and tariffs have equivalent effects; however, unlike tariffs, quotas do not generate taxation revenue. Instead, profits go to importers (assuming quotas are not auctioned).Figure Effect of a QuotaAdapted from Vousden (10, )Equilibrium occurs at p0 q0 (Figure ). If a quota were imposed at q1 then the quantity demanded would exceed the quantity supplied (pp1), thus providing a profit for the person who has the right to import equal to the area p1, p, a, c. If these quota licences were to be auctioned then this profit would be shared with the government. If the protectionist country were a producer of this imported good then profits would be lower due to the increased domestic supply stemming from higher prices. Quotas directly control imports and are more accurate than tariffs since there less ‘guesswork' regarding tax rates is involved.The methods of protection outlined above both have the potential to provoke retaliation or possibly a trade war. Voluntary export restraints (VERs) are used in a similar fashion to quotas but eliminate this factor. A VER involves an agreement by one country to limit their exports to the other. Like the quota, a VER restricts quantity, driving the price of the good upwards. This can achieved through the introduction of an export tax that forces exporters to sell cheaply in the domestic market rather than incur the tax. Unlike the quota, profits that would normally go to the importer would go to the exporting country instead, causing competition for licensing in the exporting country. Harris (185) examines the VER against Japan automobile exports to Europe and the US and suggests that the term voluntary is a misnomer. Such restraints are termed voluntary since exporting countries can modify or remove them at any time; however, VERs are often implemented in response to threats or pressures from the importing country (Jones, 14,).Export subsidies allow exporters to expand overseas supply. This lowers the price paid overseas, increasing overseas demand, while raising the domestic price and lowing domestic demand. Welfare losses occur do the subsidies distortionary impact on consumer and producer behaviour; however, the magnitude of these effects depend on the size of the country implementing the subsidy. The welfare losses of the subsidy are smaller for a small country than that of a large country. This is because a large country influences the price of its exports. A subsidy will raise the world supply of the exported commodity and lower the demand for it, thus worsening the terms of trade. This is an apparent paradox since the worsening of the terms of trade actually promotes imports.Despite the disadvantages associated with protection, governments continue to employ tariffs quotas and VERs. Reasons for doing so include assisting infant industry, improving terms of trade, reducing unemployment, fairness, income redistribution, retaliation to overseas protection, assisting developing nation, national safety, defence and correcting for market failure (new protectionism).

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Cosmetic surgery

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Cosmetic Surgery

Have you ever wished you had the beauty of Helen of Troy? Have you ever dreamed your face could launch a thousand ships? Well cosmetic surgery turns that dream into a reality. If the price is right cosmetic surgery can give the consumer the power to transform himself into a model of perfection. Cosmetic surgery is one of the fastest growing industries in America.

Cosmetic surgery is one of the two branches of plastic surgery. It attempts to improve the appearance of aging tissue or unattractive parts of the body (Georgiade 4). Cosmetic surgery is a word derived from the Greek word plastikos, meaning "fit for molding" (Tesar 67 & 68). The field of plastic surgery is the most rapidly growing specialty in American medicine, and the growth of plastic surgeons between the years 160-000 increased 1100 percent ("The dangers of…" 4 & 5). According to the American Society of Plastic Surgeons, the number of cosmetic surgeries for people ages 51-64 years old in the United States increased more than 50 percent from 16-1. Nine percent of all cosmetic procedures are performed on men. Liposuction is number one, nose jobs rank second, and eyelid surgeries are third. The number of cosmetic procedures performed on seniors in the U.S. also increased more than 50 percent from 16-1. The most popular procedure for both age groups is eyelid surgery, face-lifts, liposuction, and skin resurfacing ("Going under the knife…" 1-).

About 15 of every 100 cosmetic operations are performed on teenagers. The most popular among teens are nose jobs, ear surgery, male breast reduction, dermabrasion, and

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liposuction (Brynie 16). According to the ASPRS over million women in the United States have had breast implant surgery ("The dangers of…" 1& ). Most cosmetic surgeries are not historically covered by insurance ("Going under the knife" 4).

If you are someone that has a problem with your physical appearance, there's a good chance that there is a cosmetic procedure to correct it. One the most common types of cosmetic surgeries is the face-lift. The face-lift promises to eliminate smile lines, saggy jowls, and double chins. In the surgical operation, an incision is made inside and behind the ear skin separating from underlying tissue, and then skin is redrapped higher on the face. A face-lift costs about $,500, and lasts 10 years (Hu 8). For women in their mid 40s to early 50s, a mid-face lift is a great alternative to the total face-lift. A mid-face lift elevates the brow and soft tissues of the cheek, and is best for a person whose neck and lower face need no tightening (" New in cosmetic…" 1). In a brow-lift small incisions are made above the hairline and skin and soft tissues are elevated then skin is repositioned. A brow-lift costs $4,000 t0 $8,000 and lasts indefinitely (Hu 8). A cheek or chin implant surgery is carried out by wrapping a silicone implant around the cheek or chin. These surgeries last indefinitely. It costs $1,000 t0 $5,000 for a chin implant, and $,000 to $,000 for a cheek implant (8 & 40). A nose job is when a plastic surgeon trims down, re shapes, or augments bone and cartilage in the nose. A nose job costs $,000 to $7,000 and lasts indefinitely (8 & 40). Nose jobs are ranked 5th among most common cosmetic surgeries for men (Brynie 14).The American Society for Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery estimates over 15,000 women a year now receives breast implants. Twenty-five percent of the implants are for post cancer reconstruction, and over 100,000 implants are done on women who choose to enlarge their breasts ("The dangers of…" 1). Breast augmentation surgery costs from $,000 to $6,000. The implant is placed behind the chest muscle through an incision made in the armpit or in the crease under the breast. All silicone implants are flexible ().Liposuction is the 4th most popular cosmetic procedure among women, and the rd among men (Brynie 14). Liposuction is performed by using a vibrating instrument to break up fat inside a patient. A mixture of local anesthesia and adrenaline is infused into the area being operated on to reduce bleeding and bruising, and then unwanted fat is suctioned out. Liposuction last indefinitely, unless the patient gains more than 15 pounds, and it costs $4,000 t0 $7,000 (Hu 40). Both conventional and the newer ultrasonic type of liposuction can be performed on hips, thighs, tummies, breasts, knees, ankles, and parts of the face. These are contouring operations, not ones to remove pounds although some may become thinner ("Novel liposuction…" ). A great new trick called lipofilling makes use of the fat removed by liposuction to build up other areas such as filling out cheeks on the face, or by redefining a jaw line. This new method of liposuction was inspired by patients ("Snip, suction, stretch, & truss…" 1). For a breast reduction, a small incision is made and excess fat is removed by liposuction. A breast reduction lasts indefinitely and is covered by insurance. It costs $6,000 to 10,000, and is a popular surgery among men as well as women (Hu 40). A tummy tuck is an operation done by removing excess skin and fat through a long incision near the pubic hairline. Next, muscles are tightened to achieve a smooth surface (40). The collagen used for collagen injections is purified from cow skin and is used for various cosmetic purposes. Bovine, isolagen, or dermalogen collagen is used to plump up wrinkles on the face, give lips a fuller look, or diminish acne scars. Injections last months, and prices vary depending on the type of collagen used. Bovine collagen costs $00, isolagen costs $1,000, and dermalogen costs $400 (Brynie 15). Dermabrasion is the surgical removal of the surface layer of skin by high-speed sanding. Doctors use an abrasive wheel or wire brush, rotating at high speeds to scrape away skin. The procedure is done to remove acne scars, wrinkles, tattoos, and pre cancerous lesions. A popular alternative to dermabrasion is resurfacing with a carbon dioxide laser (Brynie 15). Laser resurfacing and chemical peels are carried out by glycolic or trichloracetic acid peels that burn away the top layer of skin, and then the skin on the patients face is vaporized by laser resurfacing. A chemical peel lasts a few months and laser resurfacing lasts a year. Chemical peels cost $,000 and laser resurfacing costs $5,000 (Hu 40). Retin-A treatment was recently sought out by 00,000 men and women to improve skin texture, smooth wrinkles, and cure acne scars. Retin-A surgery is the number 1 cosmetic treatment for women and number for men (Brynie 1 & 14).The reasons people have cosmetic surgery varies from person to person. Often patients decide to receive cosmetic surgery because they are on a quest of perfection. Many customers feel a boost of self-esteem after their surgery (Plastic Surgery 1). More often than not, today's face-lift clients are fitness buffs who view a little surgical correction as the finishing touch to their efforts at the health club ("Snip, suction, stretch, & truss…" 1). Plastic surgeon, Dr. Michael Clinton, stated "Because people are living better, they want to look as god as they feel. Look around your local gym. A lot of guys in their 50s and 60s are working out. Some turn to cosmetic surgery because they want to look as good as they feel ("Going under the knife…" )."Ultrasonic liposuction is gaining national attention for its capability to allow doctors to remove fat from more obese people ("Novel liposuction…" 1-). Youngsters in Britain and the U.S. are electing to go under the knife in growing numbers. There are no legal minimums on age and often no counseling is given. One observer found a clinic admitting to have given implants to girls as young as 15. Sandra, a 17-year-old patient, stated this about her newfound love of her implants "I had really little breasts and felt embarrassed. I'm more confident and wear low tops ("Young adolescents seek…" 6b)." Each year thousands of men undergo breast reduction surgery to treat gynecomatia, an excessive development of breasts in males (Tesar 6). Older men also resort to hair transplants to correct male pattern baldness (71). An explanation as to why Americans have cosmetic surgery was best summed up by Steven Soll, a L.A. financial planner, "I could go out and spend $0,000 on a car to make myself feel better, or I could spend $,000 to change something that has always bothered me ("Snip, suction, stretch, & truss…" ).Although cosmetic surgery helps many people, sometimes there are problems. In a face-lift there can be bleeding under the skin, nerve damage, infection, and hair loss (Hu 8 & 40). Complications are rare but some patients experience scatting, bleeding under the skin, or damage to facial nerves resulting in loss of feeling or muscular control. Extensive burning is normal (Brynie 18). In a brow-lift eyebrows can be moved too high and nerve damage may lead to facial numbness (Hu 8 &40). For cheek or chin implants there is a slight chance of infection and the implant may be crooked (8 & 40). A hematoma, swelling due to built up blood under skin, may occur after a nose job. Also, there may be internal scarring (8 & 40). Breast implants can cause infection, hemorrhage, and adverse reactions to anesthesia ("The dangers of…" ). The most common problem in breast implants is capsular contracture. Capsular contracture is the contraction of the fibrous capsule that forms around all devices implanted in the body. This causes the breast to become firm or hard. It is estimated that capsular contracture occurs 5 percent of the time. To treat this problem the implant can be removed, or manual compression of the breast can be done to break the capsule and soften the breast implant ("The dangers of…" ). The fear of the breast implant rupturing is also a big problem. Bleeding and seepage of the silicone gel through the containing envelope is a universal characteristic of gel filled implants. Systemic illness has been associated with reactions to breast implants, and breast cancer detection is reportedly impaired by implants (4). Temporary numbness, bruising, itching, small scars, and uneven skin tone are after effects of liposuction (Hu 40). In breast reductions the most serious risks are loss of sensitivity or pigment around the nipples and poor scar healing (40).Cosmetic surgery attempts to improve the appearance of aging tissue or unattractive parts of the body. There are many different types of cosmetic procedures. Many people undergo cosmetic surgery to raise their self-confidence, or to improve an unattractive body part; however, for every procedure there is a risk involved. The cosmetic surgery industry is growing at a rapid pace because surgery is affordable and attainable. Some may still ask themselves why is cosmetic surgery so popular. It is because the quest for perfection will never come to an end.

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America's Civil Liberties after 9/11

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The September 11 terrorist attacks were the worst acts of terrorism ever carried out against the United States. On this day, terrorists in two hijacked jets flew into the twin towers of the World Trade Center, another into the Pentagon Building, and a fourth in a field in Somerset County, PA. There were an estimated ,000 people killed. United States officials concluded that Osama bin Laden and his al-Qaeda terrorist organization had been behind these attacks. After these attacks, President George W. Bush declared a war on terrorism in order to prevent any future attacks. However, in order to reach a "victory" in this war, Americans must sacrifice, to a certain degree, some of their freedom and privacy.

In 178, as the United States prepared for a war with France, Congress passed the Alien and Sedition Acts. The Alien Act authorized the president to imprison citizens of enemy countries. The Sedition Act was used to fine or imprison people who wrote, published, or said anything against the government. After the Republicans won in the election of 1800, the laws weren't enforced anymore. Following the attack on Pearl Harbor, the United States government became even more concerned about suspected spies within the United States. In 14, over 100,000 Japanese Americans were moved to internment camps. It wasn't until after the war, in 145, that they were released. During the Vietnam War, protests against the war and the military draft were numerous, and often violent. Because of this, the government began using law enforcement to restrain protests. In some cases, the government tapped people's phones without warrants. In times of crisis, government policies have often emphasized security at the expense of liberty. In most cases, however, the policies have been scaled back or ended as soon as the crisis ended or passed.

Since the events of September 11, the Bush administration has taken a lot of steps aimed at bringing terrorists to justice and preventing future acts of terrorism. But as demonstrated previously, many of the government's policies have required some restrictions of our civil rights. The USA Patriot Act was passed in October 001. This act expands on the definition of terrorism to include anyone who has supported a terrorist group. This act also gives law enforcement the power to detain any non-citizen for seven days, if they are suspected of being a risk to national security. One of this act's most controversial terms gives authorities more freedom to carry on searches, without giving letting the person know. Other terms of this act allow authorities to share secret grand jury information and to obtain information from tapped conversations, expand police access to e-mail records, increase government monitoring of financial transactions, permit law-enforcement access to library and bookstore records.

After the attacks, President Bush also called for increased aviation security. Congress passed a legislation that gave the federal government a main role in security measures in airports. The legislation required that all workers that screen travelers and baggage in airports have to be federal employees. The Aviation and Transportation Act was signed by President Bush on November 00. This act mandates that explosive-detection systems screen all checked bags for bombs and explosives. It also says that airports need fortified cockpit doors and mandatory training for flight crews about how to handle a possible hijacking. Several other things have also changed in airports. A person can only have one carry on luggage and one personal item. Another thing is that more passengers are being searched at the gates.

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Though the Patriot Act violates many of American's civil liberties, the government is doing it for our own protection. The most controversial issue with this act is the searches. If you think about it, however, it is beneficial. If authorities have suspicions about someone's home, they can search it for anything that would endanger others. Searches like these could prevent your next door neighbor from plotting an attack against others. The increased security measures in airports are a hassle because it takes up a lot of time. You have to now show up two hours in advance to make your flight. Yes, this is true, but it is much better to have to show up two hours early to the airport than risk your life because some person decided to take explosives into the plane. These security measures can be a difference of a few hours wasted of your day, than a few years taken from your life.

Please note that this sample paper on America's Civil Liberties after 9/11 is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on America's Civil Liberties after 9/11, we are here to assist you. Your persuasive essay on America's Civil Liberties after 9/11 will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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The Hours

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The Hours, adapted from Michael Cunningham's award-winning novel, was the story of three women searching for more potent, meaningful lives. Each was alive at a different time and place; all were linked by their yearnings and their fears. The main characters of this story were Virgina Woolf, who lived in a suburb of London in the early 10's, and was battling insanity as she began to write her great novel, "Mrs. Dalloway"; Laura Brown, who was a wife and mother in Los Angeles at the end of World War II, who was reading "Mrs. Dalloway", and finding it so revelatory that she began to consider making a devastating change in her life; Clarissa Vaughan, who was a contemporary version of Woolf's Mrs. Dalloway, lived in New York City today, and was in love with her friend Richard, a brilliant poet who was dying of AIDS. Their stories intertwined, and finally come together in a surprising transcendent moment of shared recognition. It was a deeply moving and powerful film about hope, love, choices we make and exploring our existence.I felt the author played down the reality of male characters in the story. The husband of Virgina Woolf was unaware of the deepest needs of his wife, but to give her the best things by setting up the printing factory in the country-side. Reilly, Laura Brown's husband, thought life was idyllic and fond of telling her that during and after World War II and how he dreamed of the perfect wife and now he had her. Richard, who was weak and always reminded Clarissa when the first time he saw her at age 1 and she was perfection. It challenged me to think about the role of man as well as to be more aware towards the real needs of others who were closed to me.The movie portrays a great deal of depressing subject matters of life and death, creation and destruction. Life and death was in the powerful hand of the writer, Virgina Woolf, as she decided the fate of her stories. The mood of her stories projected her persistent health problems and searched for the meaning of happiness in life. The struggle of the house wife, Laura Brown, in the simplest task of baking a cake for her husband's birthday, and her desire to find some meaning to her life in taking care of her young son and doting her husband. The parallel life between Clarissa and Mrs. Dalloway portrayed in Clarissa's emotion in giving herself in caring and planning for a party to celebrate for her best friend and former lover. These brought me to the awareness that life and death is a complex matter. Each of us is struggling to find the purpose and meaning of our life.I enjoyed the movie, as I could relate the struggles of the characters with my personal Catholic faith. In fact, Jesus promised to give love, hope and peace to anyone who trusts in Him. He is the light of the world, who comforts the poor and lonely. For example Virgina Woolf learned the fragility of life from a small bird through her niece, who was dressed like an angel; Laura Brown changed her mind in taking her own life in the hotel room, as she recalled the life of her own children; Clarissa was consoled by her friend while preparing the party and the dramatic meeting with Richard's mother towards the end of the movie; and Richard's life was weak and lonely, but at the end he felt liberated and choose to life in the light, as the day of the party approached.

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The movie also portrayed the present problems with in our society1. People with the terminal diseases are isolated from the society. In fact, these people are no difference with us, who feel the shamefulness, the longing for love and have right for the happiness of life. We should change our attitude of ignorance towards these people.. The abortion, which is done freely in our world today. The fact that each fetus is a living being and has the right to live in this world, therefore we should not continue killing this innocent life. It was a great movie to watch, as Stephen Daldry directed this movie, together with leading actresses like Nicole Kidman, Meryl Streep and Julianne Moore. I appreciated the editing skills and Philip glass's exquisite soundtrack with solo piano accompanied the movie. I think this movie is a piece of the cinema art, which is able to bring out the real feeling from each of the characters to the reality.I really love this movie, as it is a deeply moving film about the struggles of life. It reflects on the present problems within our society, such as the family issues and people who is struggling with loneliness and terminal diseases. It gives me a conviction of my Catholic faith that Jesus is the source of love, hope and strength for the happiness of life. Life is full of struggles, but we are invited to persevere in our life journey with Him and others. At last, I feel this movie is a piece of cinema art.

Please note that this sample paper on The Hours is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on The Hours, we are here to assist you. Your cheap research papers on The Hours will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Trial process

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Out staff of freelance writers includes over 120 experts proficient in trial process, therefore you can rest assured that your assignment will be handled by only top rated specialists. Order your trial process paper at affordable prices with custom writing service/a>! Criminal Entrapment is the creating of a situation by the police and encouraging an individual to commit a crime that he wouldn't have otherwise done. Suspected Criminals often use this defense when somehow the police have been involved in the crime they have committed. However, it is imperative that in order to be released under this circumstance that one must prove that if not provoked by the police. In the example case, United States v. Russell, it is easily determined that this does not classify as entrapment. The suspect was buying supplies for manufacturing his drugs from an undercover agent. However, Russell had been producing these drugs before the undercover agent was available to do business with. Therefore, it was ruled that none of the agents' participatory activities amounted to entrapment.

The Insanity plea is another plea that accused criminals often take. As stated in the Insanity Defense Reform Act of 184, in all federal courts a defendant must be shown to have a severe mental disease, and can't appreciate nature or quality of wrongfulness of his acts. The Defendant has the burden of proof. However, it is different among states. Each state has its own laws ranging from the lack of substantial capacity to control one's behavior, unable to understand the wrongfulness of the act, or in some states both. Many states are more lenient than others as shown in the Case of Judge Kowtna in New York. He was able to make a plea of insanity and serve a short time in a hospital even though he had shown no evidence of mental incapability in the future. However, Andrea Yates in Texas, who had a history of mental illness, was not granted the plea of insanity. Many people think that this has more to do with money and political power than the overall opinions and doings of the states. A person with money and political power has the capabilities to afford better, or more useful, doctors and has friends in high places that can help them out in a bind. This truly does seem to be the case. How else could an judge in New York be released on insanity when so many poorer individuals he himself has sent to jail refusing the insanity plea.

A third defense is the necessity defense. An example of this is the medical necessity of marijuana and the legality of raising it. Raising marijuana in the United States is seen as illegal in the eyes of the federal government. However, nine states, including California, have laws within themselves legalizing the growing of marijuana for medical purposes. In the case against Ed Rosenthal, he is charged in federal court for the illegal growing and selling of marijuana although in his home state of California it is legal for medical purposes. He was sentenced to one day in jail because the judge credited him with time already served and believed that the defendant really did not think that what he was doing was illegal. The judge warned that this case will now serve as a notice that a state or municipality cannot legally authorize medical marijuana. Although this practice is legalized in some states, it is illegal in the United States and anyone who grows marijuana will be prosecuted.

It is known that defendants have the right to call available witnesses of their choosing. However, with the recent terrorist happenings, it is debated whether or not exceptions can be made. An example of this is seen in the Moussaoui case. Moussaoui is an admitted member of Al-Quaeda. However, he denies having any involvement in the attacks that happened September 11, 001. He feels that he should have access to Binalshibh, an Al-Quaeda leader who he feels will be able to prove his innocence. Assistant U.S. Attorney General Michael Chertoff argues that it creates too high of a national security risk allowing someone like Binalshibh be accessible in trial. However, the defense says that by blocking access to Binalshibh, Moussaoui would be denied a fair trial. Binalshibh and other Al-Quaeda members are the only people capable of proving that Moussaoui was not involved in the September 11th attacks. The Justice department feels that allowing this access would perhaps allow the disclosure of classified information. "The courts have not yet ruled on the merits of the issue -- access to an alien seized abroad as an enemy combatant in the midst of war."

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In the U.S. Supreme court case Wiggins v. Smith, the Supreme court ruled that inexperienced lawyers failed their client at trial. The Supreme Court noted that the Constitution guarantees the right to an effective lawyer. At the sentencing phase, defense attorneys main purpose is to try to save the life of their client. With the background of Mr. Wiggins being so horrendous, he would have most probably been given life in prison instead of the death penalty. However, his attorneys failed to inform the jury of his background thereby leaving the jury no reason not to give the death penalty. The judge, however, declared that the lawyers' performance was not unconstitutionally poor, that they had just understandably focused their efforts on other aspects of the case. Mr. Wiggins conviction stands, but he has been granted a new sentencing hearing.

Quitman County, Mississippi is now in the process of suing the state because it says it cannot afford to provide defendants with anything more than assembly-line justice. The county is claiming that they have the responsibility to represent the poor, yet the state does not supply them with enough funds to make this possible. In fact, the state provides them with no funds for the defense of the indigent in no capital cases compared to other states that pay for much if not all of the expenses of their cases. Because of this, many counties across the U.S. are stuck using funding from their own taxes to pay for the cases and necessities of cases. This barely pays for the initial visit with the client let alone the paperwork and other expenses of the case. There are many other states in the mid-west and the deep south that also have this problem with funding. Many lawyer's that do work as public defenders receive pay as low as $1,50 a month. Because of this, many lawyers are forced to hold bulk meetings with many clients and urge them to take plea bargains that defendants with personal lawyers might not be urged to take. Therefore, this lack of funds make it barely possible to call the representative that clients receive in places like Quitman County "legal work". This Quitman County case is the first in which the plaintiff is the government itself. However, it is thought that with the poor funding of many other states, there will be more to follow. This would be the only adequate way to make representation for the poor possible.

Ohio also has a problem with funding. In one of its counties, Vinton County, a judge recently denied a death penalty case due to the lack of funding in the county. Paying for this trial would deplete most of the general funds budget of this small county. In addition, this funding problem would account for the defendant, Gregory McKnight, to not receive due process of the law. The judge states that a risk like this is unacceptable in a case of the magnitude. The state has offered financial support that would release the financial burden of the prosecution, but it is not capable for doing the same for the defense. Ohio Supreme Court Justice Paul Pfeifer stated that this shows a particular defect in the system. It is also noted that it is not unusual for a prosecution to agree to a life sentence instead of the death penalty because of lack of funding for adequate council. Please note that this sample paper on trial process is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on trial process, we are here to assist you. Your persuasive essay on trial process will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Explain and provide examples to illustrate the following accounting concepts.a)Accrualb)Prudencec)Going concernd)Historical Cost

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Financial statements, profit and loss accounts, balance sheets, cash flow statements etc, are produced on an annual basis to report to parties outside of organisation on its financial performance, financial position, and its cash flow over the period. Although the double entry system is a mechanical operation, accounting is sometimes subjective. Preparing financial statements is not absolutely automatic. Their content and layout are influenced by company law, accounting standards and accounting concepts. Accounting concepts are the fundamental principles and rules which the qualified accountants are supposed to follow when preparing financial statements. They can be used to build up an accounting framework. Some authors refer to them under a variety of other names, such as basic rules, assumptions, axioms, conventions, postulates, principles, or procedures.

There is no definitive list of fundamental accounting concepts. Different writers give different sets of concepts. FRS 18 (Financial Reporting Standard) Accounting Policies identifies two prominent concepts going concern and accruals (issued in December 000). The Companies Act 185 describes five concepts as fundamental going concern, accruals, prudence, consistency and the separate valuation principle. SSAP (Statements of Standard Accounting Practice) lists four fundamental accounting concepts as follows going concern, accruals, consistency and prudence (issued in November 171). And there are five underlying accounting concepts as follows the historical cost concept, the money measurement concept, the business entity concept, the dual aspect concept and the time interval concept.

Next step we will single out the following four concepts for further discussion

a) The accruals concept

b) The prudence concept

c) The going concern concept

d) The historical cost

a) The accruals concept

The accruals concept is also called matching concept. "The accruals concept dictates when transactions with third parties should be recognised and, in particular, determines the accounting periods in which they should be incorporated into the financial statements."(4) That means when accountants prepare the profit and loss account, the revenues and costs should be considered accrued even though the money is not received or paid. The timing normally coincides with the delivery of goods or the performance of services, not the payment or receipt of cash.

The accruals concept can be illustrated in the example as following ABC plc bought a motor vehicle on credit for £16,000 on 8 April and received it on 15 April. ABC plc bought three computers for cash £,500 on 1 April, and they would deliver in three weeks time. ABC plc sold goods on credit for £1,50 on 7 April.

In the end of April, when the accountants prepared the financial statements, £16,000 should be recorded as a purchase. ABC plc had not paid the money yet, however, they have got the motor vehicle already. That means the transaction had occurred, therefore, under the accruals concept, it should be recorded. ABC had already paid for the computers; however, they had not got them in the end of this accounting period. Hence, this transaction should be deal with advanced payment under the creditor within twelve months. Although ABC plc had not received the money from customer; however, the goods had already transfer to the customer. Therefore accountants should record this sale £1,50 into revenue.

Accruals concept is the key rule for accounting for profit.

b) The prudence concept

"The prudence concept (sometimes called ‘conservatism') means that accounts include revenues (and profits) only when they are ‘realised'." (5) It introduces caution into the recognition of assets and revenues for financial reporting purposes. Accountants very often have to use their judgment to decide which figure they should take into the financial statements. The easy way to remember is that the income should not be recorded until it is realised, but unrealised losses should be recognised immediately. Suppose the sales people recognised the order as sales. However, under the prudence concept, the accountant considers only that the goods have already transferred to the customer and the buyer accepts liability to pay for them is sales. That means profit can only be taken into account when realisation has occurred.

The accountant is prudent in ascertaining profit.

c) The going concern concept

"The going concern concept assumes that the business enterprise will continue in operational existence for the foreseeable future. This assumption introduces a constraint on the prudence concept by allowing the account balance to be reported on a depreciated cost basis rather than on a net realizable value basis."(6) That means that the accountant values assets at cost less depreciation or net book value, on the assumption that they are worth at least this much.

Depreciation is a good example for the using of the going concern concept. Fixed assets such as machinery, motor vans, fixtures and even building do not last for ever. Therefore, a depreciation charge will be deducted from the cost of buying them. Suppose, a company bought a machine for £100,000 and the company will continue the operations, hence, this machine as asset will live out its full twenty years in use. We can calculate that the depreciation is £5,000 each year (£100,000 / 0). Therefore, the value of this machine in the balance sheet should be the cost of this machine minus the depreciation. The value will be £5,000 in the end of the first year and £0,000 in the end of the second year. After twenty years, the value will be 0.

The going concern concept is very important for valuing the fixed assets, because when the business close down, valuing these assets is very different. However, if the business is going to close down in the near future, the going concern concept should not be made.

d) The historical concept

The historical cost means assets are recorded at the original cost price to value in the balance sheet, rather than current value. Under this concept, transactions are reported at the £ amount recorded at the date the transactions occurred. Under the historical cost concept, therefore, no account is taken of changing prices in the economy. The greatest advantage of this concept is under it, the value of assets or the expenses are stated objectively.

Normally, when accountants prepare the financial reports, inflation will be ignored and the stability of currency will be assumed. They prefer to adopt the original cost of the asset.

For instance, a company bought a motor vehicle for £16,000. After two years, on the secondhand market, it is only worth £10,000. If the company buys a same new motor vehicle, it costs £1,000 because of the inflation. However, the accountant use the original cost £16,000 which occurred when the company bought the motor van. Neither £10,000 nor £1,000 will be adopted.

In conclusion, in preparing and presenting information, accountants have considerable freedom over which rules to adopt and how they should be interpreted. If accountants are subjective, it means that they use their own method, even though no one else may agree to it. The financial statements which accountants prepare must be disordered and immeasurable. In drawing up accounting statements, whether they are external financial accounts or internally-focused management accounts, a clear objective has to be that the accounts fairly reflect the true substance of the business and the results of its operation. Accountants must avoid being subjective. The desire to provide the same set of accounts for many different parties, and thus to provide a measure that gains their consensus of option, means that objectivity is sought in financial accounting. The theory of accounting has, therefore, developed the concept of a true and fair view. The true and fair view is applied in ensuring and assessing whether accounts do indeed portray accurately the businesss activities. That set of concepts must be objective that means all can agree to, instead of everyone using their own different method. Accounting concepts which support the application of the true and fair view are very important for helping to ensure that accounting information is presented accurately and consistently.

Question

(4) Page

Financial Accounting and Reporting (5th Edition)

Page 4

By Barry Elliott & Jamie Elliott, 001

Prentice Hall

(5) Page 10

Accounting and Financial Decisions (New Edition)

Page 7

By D. R. Myddelton, 11

Longman Singapore Publishers Pte Ltd.

(6) Page 10 - 11

Financial Accounting and Reporting (5th Edition)

Page 1

By Barry Elliott & Jamie Elliott, 001

Prentice Hall

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001, Prentice Hall Europe

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001, Prentice Hall

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D. R. Myddelton

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Peter Atrill,

000, Financial Time Prentice Hall

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Barry Elliott & Jamie Elliott,

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10. Essentials of Managerial Finance (Eleventh Edition)

J. Fred Weston & Scott Besley & Eugene F. Brigham,

16, Dryden Press

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Eugene F. Brigham & Louis C. Gapenski,

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1. Analysis for Financial Management (Fifth Edition)

Robert C. Higgins,

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1. Accounting Principles (Seventh Edition)

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000, Thomson

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Pest analysis

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Competitive Environment

In this section we will examine the competitive environment where we will be implementing our strategic plan. It is essential to take into account the external environment as it will enable us to identify potential opportunities and threats which may arise from the changing environment.

The Macroenvironment consists of a number of broader forces that affect not only the subject but also the other actors in the microenvironment. These can be grouped under economic, social, legal physical and technological forces. These shape the character of the opportunities and threats facing the subject yet are largely uncontrollable. (Jobber, 001)

The PEST analysis

In general, the abbreviation PEST, sometimes reordered as STEP, is a description of a framework for the analysis of the macro-environmental factors. Each letter of the world PEST stands for something as shown in the following graph

Political Factors

To many companies, domestic political considerations are likely to be of prime concern. Decisions made by government affect our every day lives and can come in the form of policy or legislation. However as Billie is a celebrity not a company political factors play a less important role although that is not to say that political factors should be ignored when considering Billie's competitive environment. Music and politics have always had an uneasy relationship with many music stars using their fame to voice their political opinions. At the moment in the aftermath of the war in Iraq there is a lot of anti-government sentiment among our target market particularly in the UK. This could create an opportunity for Billie to exploit by being outspoken on political issues like this. It is an opportunity for her to become a figurehead for certain political issues much the same way as Bob Geldof and Bono are.

Political factors can also have a negative effect - for example at this years MTV awards when Madonna kissed Britney Spears and Christina Aguilera in a provocative dance on stage it caused outrage among many American politicians. Some conservatives even went as far as to blame them for September 11th. They said that such antics could cause offense to Muslims who will retaliate by creating more terrorist atrocities. As you can imagine this created a lot of negative publicity for Madonna, Britney and Christina. Therefore it is very important to take into account and exploit the current political climate when implementing our strategic plan.

Economic Factors

All industries are affected by economical factors nationally and globally and the showbiz industry is no different. The climate of the economy dictates how consumers may behave within society. Whether an economy is in a boom, recession or recovery will also effect consumer confidence and behaviour. At this point in time our target market has more disposable income than any of their previous generations. This means that they can afford to buy more cds, magazines, concert tickets and merchandise - it is up to us to convince them to buy Billie's items. Another positive factor is that the economy both nationally and internationally is staging a slow recovery. This will have a positive effect on consumer confidence and buyer behaviour.

Social Factors

Within society forces such as family, friends, media affect our attitude, interest and opinions. These forces shape who we are as people and the way we behave and what we ultimately purchase. The social issues which concern our target market include relationships, pregnancy, drugs, binge drinking, weight problems etc. Billie is ideally placed to become a role model for our target market because she has experienced many of these issues herself. She had many much publicised drinking binges, she collapsed in a nightclub supposedly because of a kidney problem, she had a string of relationships and got married to a much older man while still a teenager and had a well documented gain in weight. She has also lived in the media spotlight since she was just fifteen.

Technological Factors

Changes in technology is changing the way business operates. The Internet is having a profound impact on the marketing mix. The internet is hurting cd sales because of piracy so there is an opportunity there for artists to embrace new technology by allowing their music to be downloaded legally for a small fee from official websites. Our target market are the group who embraces new technology easily so it is important for Billie to be seen as a technophile. At all times she should be seen with the latest gadgets and newest model of mobile phone. This will create the impression that Billie is in touch with the values of her target market.

Overall Billie's competitive environment is a challenging one but she is in a strong position to exploit the opportunities that exist within it.

Please note that this sample paper on Pest analysis is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Pest analysis, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom college paper on Pest analysis will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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