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Learning to Learn
The most important feature of learning is making the basic effort to discover key facts on your own. The cutting and pasting that is becoming increasingly popular since the web has made it possible to find a wide range of material has little to do with learning. Monkeys could accomplish the same thing if banana oil were spread on the keys of a computer keyboard.
Even worse, much of the cutting and pasting done by students today involves theft of material from other people. It is dishonest or even illegal in many cases. Perhaps the saddest thing is that few instructors currently teach the limits of what constitutes acceptable use of other peoples? work. Students submit papers that are almost entirely stolen without even realizing that they are violating important rules.
However, the saddest thing is that people just don?t learn from this process. Even if you do a weak job on your own, you will learn more than if you steal someone else?s work. In the long run, your grades will be better if you learn to learn and you also will do better on the job. Employers frequently complain to university faculty about the fact that new graduates have limited ability to learn and upgrade their skills on the job. Of course, the comments are not that polite ? terms like ?worthless? are applied to people who graduated with respectable grades from recognized universities.
The rest of this paper will be throwaway trash added simply to fill up space. Good luck ? if you are reading this you already need it. Try working on your own instead. Just like going to the gym, it builds mental muscles.
Since Stephen Hymer introduced the concept of disadvantages of foreignness
in 160, it has received scholarly attention from various fields. Although
Hymers definition of the liability of foreignness (i.e., costs of doing
business abroad) seems rudimentary, the concept has helped us to better
understand the behavior, decisions, and performance of MNEs during
international expansion. Indeed, most foreign direct investment (FDI)
theories assume that foreign subsidiaries are at a disadvantage relative to
domestic firms with respect to some aspects of doing business in
host-countries. To succeed in foreign markets, international companies need
to overcome the liability of foreignness through the commitment of dynamic
capabilities that can generate ownership-specific advantages superior to
those of local firms.
While the concept of the liability of foreignness has become more widely
used, the majority of the writing has been anecdotal in nature, and few
studies have rigorously investigated it, theoretically or empirically. Most
MNE and FDI research has focused on investigating the sources and types of
advantages, such as intangible assets, foreign investors must posses to
overcome whatever disadvantages they face. While the success of FDI does
depend on the advantages investors possess, disadvantages faced in the
host-country also affect performance. Understanding the nature of
disadvantages facing foreign subsidiaries could uncover ways to minimize
these liabilities of foreignness and improve the management of FDI.
At the turn of this new century, MNEs, whether large or small, are operating
in a global environment that differs in many aspects from the international
setting over the past decades. Many emerging markets provide MNEs with new
business opportunities but enormous liabilities of foreignness as well. Such
liabilities are derived and heightened not only from the complexity and
uncertainty of the regulatory and legal environment, but also the
specificity and criticality of the social and cultural environment. The
coexistence of more promising opportunities and higher liability of
foreignness in this new international context has many MNEs adjusting their
market entry, local operations, and global integration strategies.
There are several challenges to improving our understanding of liabilities
of foreignness. A primary challenge is that this construct is not well
developed or defined in the literature. Another challenge stems from the
idiosyncratic nature of these liabilities. Because host-country environments
differ significantly, the types of liabilities of foreignness vary across
countries. Consequently, increased understanding requires investigation of
specific liabilities of foreignness in many different focal countries.
Seeking to help advance our understanding of liabilities of foreignness, the
Journal of International Management is soliciting papers for an upcoming
special issue. A variety of theoretical and empirical approaches to
investigate this construct will be considered for this special issue. The
following list is meant to be suggestive and is by no means exhaustive.
Theoretical papers defining, developing, or modeling this
concept For instance, how should it be accurately defined? What are major
environmental conditions influencing the level and pattern of the liability
of foreignness? How is it linked with the antecedent and consequence
factors? What should be appropriate strategic response to mitigating this
liability while expanding internationally? How should it be positioned in
the Ownership-Location-Internalization framework? How does this liability
influence the evolutionary process of internationalization? What are key
strategic assets, resources, or capabilities MNEs can leverage in order to
attenuate this liability, and how should these assets, resources, or
capabilities be deployed and configured in order to mitigate specific
liabilities of foreignness? Papers investigating interactions, theoretically
or empirically, between MNEs competitive advantages and liabilities of
foreignness are also welcome.
Qualitative or quantitative empirical research
operationalizing or investigating specific liabilities of foreignness in
focal countries For example, is it necessary to differentiate between
overall and specific liabilities? How should they be operationalized and
measured? In a focal country, particularly an emerging market, what are
reasonable indicators or proxies for these liabilities? For specific
liabilities, are there any components that are common to all countries while
others are peculiar only to a specific country? How does the liability
affect MNE performance at either the subsidiary or the parent levels,
ceteris paribus? What are the organizational or strategic factors (parent or
subsidiary) that significantly reduce a hazardous effect of the liability?
Could a better relationship with a local government, for instance, help
reduce such an effect?
Well-developed case studies investigating aspects or types
of liabilities of foreignness It is particularly interesting to compare and
contrast different experiences, and ultimately consequences, of MNEs which
have dealt differently with the same liability of foreignness.
Papers must be received by March 1, 001. Authors should prepare manuscripts
in accordance with JIMs style guide. All submissions will be subjected to
the usual review process and judged based on the following criteria
conceptualization of this construct, advancement of our understanding these
liabilities of foreignness, likely utility to researchers and practitioners,
and novelty of the arguments advanced by the papers. Submissions (in
quadruplicate) and inquiries should be directed to
The Strategic Management Society has created Interest Groups to foster the generation of new ideas in a more interactive forum, providing a means for integrating its members as well as members-to-be (A-academics, B-business practitioners and C-consultants) in creative discussions on themes of common interest.
The Interest Group ?Managing Knowledge? organizes two kick-off workshops to launch its activities. The workshops will be devoted to the exploration of ?The Role of Knowledge and Learning in Strategic Management?. The emergence of what is increasingly recognized as a Knowledge Economy has dramatically changed the conditions for business and management, opening up new ways to think about strategy and creating urgent needs for addressing the issues of managing learning and knowledge.
We are inviting scholars as well as practitioners to jointly participate in the exciting exploration of innovative and creative ways of studying, theorizing and developing new concepts and tools to address the complex issues of building and leveraging knowledge. The workshop format will provide a set of in-depth interactive discussions, making it possible to explore issues such as
-What exactly is organizational knowledge ? How to go about conceptualizing and investigating learning and knowledge ? Are existing theoretical models of knowledge of any use for practitioners ? What can we learn from the variety of experiments which companies conduct on Knowledge Management ?
-How does organizational learning take place and how does it feed into knowledge ? How does it contribute to innovation processes ? How is it affected by innovation ? Can we learn more about communities of practice ? How useful is storytelling ? Is it relevant to study languaging ? How is knowledge shared and transmitted in strategic alliances ?
-How do organizations memorize what they have learnt and what they know ? What is the social capital of an organization ? How can firms build strategies to best manage knowledge ? How can organizations manage their knowledge workers ?
-How can organizations best leverage their knowledge base strategically to build competitive advantages ? How promising and useful is the real options approach ? To what extent and how is strategy formulation affected by the new form of competition brought about by the so-called Knowledge Economy ?
-etc.
The very open character of the Interest Group on ?Managing Knowledge? and the workshop format of both kick-off events with focus on exchange and discussion mean that we welcome management researchers from different disciplines as well as practitioners with different interests in knowledge to take an active part in the discussions.
We encourage participants to join for both meetings, in Durham on April 14-16, 00 and in Paris on September , 00, the day just before the SMS 00 conference starts.
Call for Contributions & Papers
-Participants willing to contribute to the preparation and content of the workshops are kindly invited to write a one to three page contribution, sending it before Feb 1st for the Durham event and before July 1st for the Paris event. These contributions may raise specific issues around the general theme, address a specific point, suggest a research agenda, etc. These contributions will feed into the structuring of the workshops. The organizers may decide to circulate some of these contributions to registered participants prior to the workshops.
-The format of the events do not really allow for formal presentations of papers. However, those who wish to submit a paper for the workshop are invited to send a page abstract (typical SMS conference format) or, if available, a full paper before Feb 1st 00 for Durham and before July 1st 00 for Paris. These will be reviewed by at least two members of the Core team of the Interest Group. Acceptance of papers will be notified to presenters one month later.
All contributions should be sent to Thomas Durand both by e-mail ( thd@ecp.fr )
and in three paper copies Thomas Durand, Ecole Centrale Paris, 5 Châtenay, France
Workshop fee for the Durham event will be £5 (approx. Euro 500). This includes accommodation at the University of Durham Business School plus all meals. Bus transportation (at cost) to and from Newcastle Airport will be arranged for those arriving and departing by air.
Workshop fee for the Paris event (the Interest Group workshop on Sept only) will be 100 ? (Euro 100). This includes coffee breaks, lunch and documentation.
For accommodation in Paris, participants should follow SMS indications for the 00 conference.
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DESCALING SOLUTION Generally, a flush through descaler uses
about .5 to .75 fluid ounces (1 to 1.5 tablespoons, or 8 to 1 grams)
of citric or tartaric (grape) acid powder dissolved in 1 liter of
water. This is a .5% to .5% solution, equivalent to % to 50%
dilute lemon juice. Cleancaf and other coffee manufacturers descalers
use this formula. Theoretically, these amounts will dissolve about 1
to 18 grams of scale per liter, but that would require leaving the
solution in for several days; in practice, it is used for an hour or
two to dissolve up to 5 grams of scale.
The formula is mild enough to be harmless to espresso machine
components, but it will come out of brass or copper machines with a
slight greenish tinge. This comes from milligram levels of dissolved
copper and is no cause for alarm.
5 lb bags of citric or tartaric acid cost about $10 at home
brewers or soapmakers supply stores. This is roughly a 0 year
supply
DESCALING INTERVALS Know the hardness of the water youre
using, and how much you use the machine. Descale when accumulations
are between .5 and 5 grams. More often is a waste of time, less often
may result in scale build up. Check out section 1.7 for instructions
on determining your set ups scaling rate.
SINGLE BOILER MACHINES For single boiler machines, preventive
descaling is no problem, just follow the instructions given by the
manufacturer. In general, this involves filling the boiler, letting
the solution work for about ten minutes, and replacing it by running
it out of the steam wand under pump pressure. This procedure is
repeated three to five times, until about a liter of descaler is used
up. Then the machine is flushed with water until any taste is gone.
Manufacturers recommendations differ on whether the brewhead
should be flushed or not. This is not surprising. The waters
temperature drops and LI rises as it moves from the boiler to the
head, so scale wont form there. In scaled machines however, fragments
can move from the boiler into the head, fouling the gicleur valve. My
guess is that with regular descaling, flushing the head is unnecessary
but harmless.
I do not know if the dual boiler Techno can be descaled in
this way, or if there is some procedure peculiar to it.
HEAT EXCHANGERS HX machines have two things to descale, the
boiler and the heat exchanger(s). Any descaling of a plumbed in
machine will involve moving the water inlet pipe to a tank that can
hold the solution.
Doing the heat exchanger is as easy as a single boiler
machine. Just run descaler through it until it exits the brewhead (or
HXed tap). Leave the descaler in for 5 to 10 minutes with the machine
off (or to 4 with it on), then run out a /4 cup worth, repeat six
times until youve used up a liter of descaler. If the boiler refill
comes on during this period, very little harm is done, since it will
be adding only 0 ml or so to a liter or more of boiler water. Boiler
flushes (see below) can be scheduled after an HX descaling to minimize
this problem even further. However, ONLY USE CITRIC OR TARTARIC ACID
FOR HX MACHINE DESCALING, since if any remains in the boiler its no
big deal, whereas smelly vinegar or cleancafs detergent could be a
problem even at low concentrations.
HX MACHINE BOILERS Descaling the boiler is much more of a
headache. If you cook, you know that scale preferentially forms at the
waterline. This means that filling the boiler with descaling solution
only to the autofill line is not going to be very effective, since the
descaler will barely be in contact with the bulk of the scale.
Disconnecting the autofill (a wand like device sticking out of the top
of the boiler with a single wire attached) will fill the boiler to a
higher level and allow the descaler to work on this rim.
In machines with a direct boiler tap, the boiler can be filled
by opening the water tap, and letting the autofill refill the boiler
with descaler. When thats done, close the tap, and disconnect the
autofill for 0 seconds or so to fill the boiler a little above the
regular water line. On machines without a direct boiler tap, the
autofill has to be disconnected, and the fill may have to proceed by
flushing the boiler through the steam wand. If theres an easily
accessible drain, it may be easier to use it in conjunction with the
autofill.
If youre draining via the steam wand, dont let the machine
get too cold, otherwise the vacuum breaker will leak.
Disconnecting the autofill at the sensor risks shifting the
sensors depth, so its best to buy a spade lug and its mate, or an
inline switch that is rated for 10C ambient, and use them to make a
disconnect in the wire to the sensor. One can even extend the wiring
so this can be done without removing the case (i.e. so its reachable
at the water tank).
Once the boiler is filled with descaler, leave it in for two
and half hours with the machine off, or one hour with the machine on.
The descaler is flushed out using the same procedure that
brought it in, either via the tap, steamwand or drain. Keep flushing
and refilling until theres no more lemon taste. This may take about
twice as much water as is usually in the boiler. Its best to refill
the boiler with RO water (see below). Add 5% to 10% tap water to keep
the autofill happy.
4. BOILER FLUSHING
Obviously, no one in their right minds would want to go
through the hassle of doing a boiler descaling at monthly or bimonthly
intervals. Fortunately, one can reduce the descaling requirement to
virtually nothing, even when running the 0 mg/l hardness, 50 mg/l
alkalinity water best for coffee by using this trick.
If the boiler autofill only runs to replenish water lost by
steaming, it only amounts to a few ounces per day. Suppose the water
in the boiler starts out very soft. Then these small additions of
moderately hard water wont bring it to scaling levels for at least a
week or so.
So once a week, put very soft water into your tank and flush
the boiler with it until the water has been softened down. The
flushing technique is the same as that described in the descaling
section. Then put your regular nuetral to moderately hard espresso
water back in and enjoy your shots with complete confidence. If you
regularly use boiler water for Americanos, etc., or do a lot of
steaming, adjust the frequency of soft water flushing to match [see
section 1.7]. If this is impossible due to very high use or boiler
inaccessability, you will have to go with a softer non-scaling water.
Straight RO can be used for this flushing since enough
minerals will generally remain to operate the autofill sensor. If the
pump doesnt go off due to low minerals, simply shut the machine and
replace the RO water with the regular water. It will only take a few
seconds of pumping to raise the mineral content enough to deactivate
the autofill. Alternatively, add 5% to 10% tap water to make it
conductive enough.
Even if boiler safe water is used, the boiler needs to be
flushed occasionally. The frequency can be calculated using the data
in section 1.
If these procedures are followed, theres technically no need
to descale the boiler at all. Nevertheless, an annual or biannual
descaling is wise to pick up any stray scale that may have formed due
to forgetfullness.
At the other end of the transaction-cost spectrum, transactions in goods or services that are difficult to measure or involve tacit knowledge or embedded information may be quite costly to manage through any form of inter-firm transfer. Repeated exchanges of this latter type may be more efficiently accomplished through full internalization within the hierarchy of a firm (Williamson, 185). Reliance upon US parent firms for operating routines or procedures may pose this type of problem for ventures. Operating routines and procedures may have important idiosyncratic or firm-specific features that are only imperfectly transferred or reproduced (Polanyi, 175). The implementation of operating procedures also may involve path-dependent learning and produce different results in different organizations (Mahoney & Pandian, 1; Nelson & Winter, 18).
Routines and procedures involving forms of knowledge that are difficult to codify are likely to take this form (Winter, 187). Efforts to supply these types of resources to an alliance may be inefficient and demand costly on-going involvement of personnel from parent firms in the operations of alliances. Complaints from US managers about high levels of support that must be provided to ventures in order to implement relatively modest alterations in inputs, specifications or technologies typically reflect this type of problem. The capacity to create and modify basic operating procedures and routines is a fundamental feature of organizational development, and failure to build the necessary capabilities internally may compromise the performance of a venture.
Dependence upon the US parent for operating resources such as materials, on one hand, routines and operating procedures, on the other, may have a negative impact on performance. This effect may be more readily observed for contributions of resources from the US parent than the Mexican parent. Operating resources of this type may involve some location-specific features when they are contributed by the Mexican parent, and it may be difficult to clearly distinguish operating resources from local resources in certain cases. US parent contributions of operating resources are less ambiguous and can be expected to have a more obvious adverse effect on the perceived performance of alliances.
Proposition Contributions of operating resources to the alliance by the US parent firm have a negative effect on alliance performance, as perceived by managers of the US parent firm
The three propositions above suggest a simple model of the relationship between different types of resource contributions and perceptions of alliance success (Figure 1). Combining these different types of resource contributions in a single model is appropriate, both because they may be interdependent and because they can be expected to simultaneously influence perceived performance. Contributions of certain strategic resources such as management personnel and technical skills can be expected to improve organizational development in the venture, which may have the effect of reducing the reliance of the venture on the US parent for basic operating resources. The three propositions above and the link between strategic and operating resources are represented by paths between constructs in the model in Figure 1.
Put Figure 1 about here
The approach to alliances outlined above has a good deal in common with research by Dunning (188) and Teece (186); however, it also differs from their work in certain important ways. Although Dunning (188) and Teece (186) both identified similar combinations of strategic advantage, local advantage, and transactional advantages as critical to alliances, their objectives were to explain the conditions that favor alliances as a form of organization. Their approaches involve ex post explanation based on underlying efficiency assumptions characteristic of economics (Kogut, 188; Tallman, 1).
The object of explanation here is quite different. Rather than explaining the incidence of alliances, the research is aimed gaining a better understanding of the conditions that are conducive to (perceived) success of alliance strategies. The observed alliances are not assumed to represent efficient solutions to economic organization under specifiable constraints. On the contrary, performance may vary among alliances depending, in part, on relationships with parent firms. This research also has different practical implications than work based on a more economic approach. Where the economically-oriented work primarily is aimed at identifying the appropriate form of organization for a specific type of exchange, this research is designed to explore the differential effects that the roles played by alliance participants may have on the perceived success of alliance strategies.
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