Effects of Divorce on Children, Sociology

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Each year, over 1 million American children suffer the divorce of their parents; moreover, half of the children born this year to parents who are married will see their parents divorce before they turn 18. Mounting evidence in social science journals demonstrates that the devastating physical, emotional, and financial effects that divorce is having on these children will last well into adulthood and affect future generations.

Divorce Children and Society

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Since there is so much discussion of the effects of divorce on children, it is important to begin stating divorce (overall) does have negative effects on children. Divorce not only has an effect on the family institution, but also effects the other institutions religion, economy, education, and state. Children that come from a divorced family have more difficulty in school, more behavior problems, more negative self-concepts, more problems with peers, more trouble getting along with their parents and less likely to participate in a religion. With half of American marriages ending in divorce, divorce greatly affects the younger generations (York, 18).

Most psychologists and sociologists agree that there are six major hypotheses regarding the causes of childrens difficulties loss of a parent, economic loss, stress, poor parental adjustment, lack of parental competence, and exposure to conflict. These six effects are affiliated much more with family institution and the economy institution. If the family is the building block of society, then marriage is the foundation of the family. However, this foundation is growing weaker, with fewer adults entering into marriage, more adults leaving it in divorce, and more and more adults eschewing it altogether for single parenthood or cohabitation. American society, through its institutions, must teach core principles that marriage is the best environment in which to raise healthy, happy children who can achieve their potential and that the family is the most important institution for social well-being (York, 18).

One of the most significant factors in divorce is a child has a loss of a parent, affecting more the family institution. Divorce often results in the loss of a parent for the Divorce Children and Society children and with this loss children also lose the knowledge, skills and resources (emotional, financial, etc.) of that parent. Though many no custodial parents still spend time with their children, there still is less time being spent. One finding that emphasizes the importance of parents as a resource to children, is that children who lose a parent due to death are somewhat similar to children of divorce (Fagan, 000). Generally, children who lose a parent due to death suffer some of the same problems as children of divorce. However, the effects of death are not exactly the same as the effects for divorce as studies suggest that children of divorce have greater problems than children with a deceased parent. Another finding that fits with this hypothesis is that children of divorce who have other adults who take over the function of the absent parent will fare abetter (York, 18).

Another significant effect on children comes from the economic loss they suffer. Another result of divorce is that children living in single parent families are less likely to have as many economic resources as children living in intact families. Due to limited economic resources children in single-parent families may have more difficulties. Most mothers become the custodial parent. And since women make only about 70 cents for every dollar a man makes, this gives way for a much tighter budget (Fagan, 000). Given that both parents work in one home, there is now only one income coming into the household and most likely the expenses do not decrease dramatically when a parent leaves the home. For example, a couple with one child rents a two-bedroom apartment; later they decide on a divorce. There is now one income coming into the home and there Divorce Children and Society is still a need to rent a two-bedroom apartment. Of course there are laws that require a man to pay child support, but less than half the men ordered to pay child support pay the required amount; some pay less and some do not pay anything at all. There is a common belief that many of the difficulties experienced by children are the result of the economic difficulties experienced in these families. The overall evidence is not as strong in support of this hypothesis as might be expected. Generally, family income is positively associated with childrens well being, but some studies have not found that income improves childrens well being. Also, researchers have statistically controlled for income differences between intact and divorced families and all of the differences between children in these two types of families do NOT disappear. In other words, there are still some other factors affecting childrens well-being above and beyond money (York, 18).

Stress is another effect of divorce on children; there is much more of it. Divorce often results in many changes in childrens living situations such as changing schools, childcare, homes, etc. Children often also have to make adjustments to changes in relationships with friends and extended family members. These changes create a more stressful environment for children. Of course there are areas that the child will be experiencing less stress, such as not having to live in a home when one or both parents is unhappy in the marriage (York, 18). Religious worship, which has been linked to better health, longer marriages, and better family life, drops after the parents divorce. The institution of religion suffers greatly when parents divorce. Despite what most believe, Divorce Children and Society 4Americans are less likely to go to church when they are stressed out. This contrasts with the belief that religious worship aids in the relief of stress. Also, parents (who become custodial parents after divorce) that actively involve their children in religion before divorce involve their children about half as much after divorce (Fagan, 000).

Another effect of divorce depends on how well both parents adjust. Some parents adjust very poorly; this also affects the family institution. Generally how children fare in families is due in part to the mental health of the parents, this is likely to be true for children in divorced families as well. The psychological adjustment of parents is a significant factor in childrens well being. There have been many studies examining the relationship between divorced parents psychological well-being and childrens well-being. Of the 15 studies that have examined this relationship 1 found that there was a positive relationship between the mental health of parents and childrens mental health. That is, children whose parents are better adjusted fare better than children whose parents are not adjusting well. There is some evidence to suggest than when the divorced parents adjustment is taken into account that some of the differences between children from intact and divorced children disappears. Despite the general support for these conclusions, there is at least one important caution. The causal relationship between parents and childrens adjustment is not clear. It could be that having better adjusted children improves the well-being of the parents (York, 18).

Of course, there is always different degree of parental competence. Much of what Divorce Children and Society 5happens to children in general is related to the skill of parents in helping them develop. The competence of parents following divorce is likely to have considerable influence on how the children are doing. The skills that parents have in dealing with children have a profound influence on childrens well being (Fagan, 000). Overall, the evidence indicates that many parents report diminished parenting practices immediately following divorce that appears to contribute to some of the problems that children experience. Many studies have also examined the relationship between child-rearing skills and childrens well being. There is overwhelming research evidence that indicates that parenting skills and the types of relationships between parent and child are strong influences on how well children are doing (York, 18).

A major hypothesis regarding the causes of childrens difficulty is that conflict between parents prior to, during and after the divorce contributes to lower well being. There have been a number of studies examining this relationship. Generally, it has been found that children in high conflict families (either intact or divorced) fare worse than children in low conflict families. Some studies have found that children in non-conflicting single parent families are doing better than children in conflicting two-parent families (Fagan, 000). There is also evidence that children begin to have difficulties prior to divorce and that some of these difficulties are associated with the conflict present prior to divorce. Post-divorce conflict has a strong influence on childrens adjustment. Children in those families that can cooperate and reduce conflict are faring better than other families. Conflict is frequently part of families and may be especially common in Divorce Children and Society 6families that have undergone divorce. The degree to which children are exposed to conflict may have substantial effects on childrens well being (York, 18).

As noted, many institutions suffer when divorce occurs. With broken homes, there is a greater chance of poverty, but the religion and state institutions suffer as well. Since the mid 0th century, the government has imposed more regulations on divorce, child support, custody, and counseling. Restoring the importance of marriage to society and the welfare of children will require politicians and civic leaders to make this one of their most important tasks. To set about the task of rebuilding a culture of family based on marriage and providing it with all the protections and supports necessary to make intact marriages commonplace, federal, state, and local officials must have the will to act. The federal and state governments spend $150 billion per year to subsidize and sustain single-parent families. By contrast, only $150 million is spent to strengthen marriage. Thus, for every $1,000 spent to deal with the effects of family disintegration, only $1 is spent to prevent that disintegration. Refocusing funds to preserve marriage by reducing divorce and illegitimacy not only will be good for children and society, but in the long run will save money (Fagan, 000).

Although it has been proved that divorce does have negative affects on children, divorce rates keep climbing. The social institutions bear the effects; there is a lower well being for the younger generations. With half of marriages ending in divorce, the effects of divorce are not a culture shock, but they are becoming a trend, perhaps a norm in the American society. The effects of divorce surround the family institution, a habitat where Divorce Children and Society 7love, comfort and support is supposed to partake. If this is to suffer the most, our children surely are not given the best of life (Fagan, 000).

1. Ambert, Anne-Marie. 18. Divorce Facts, Figures and Consequences. Ph.D. Department of Education. Dissertation, York University, Toronto, Ontario, Retrieved August , 00

(http//www.vifamily.ca/cft/divorce/divorce.htm). Fagan, Patrick. 000. The effects of Divorce on America. The Heritage Foundation. Retrieved August , 00

(http//www.heritage.org/Research/Family/BG17.cfmPlease note that this sample paper on Effects of Divorce on Children, Sociology is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Effects of Divorce on Children, Sociology, we are here to assist you. Your cheap college papers on Effects of Divorce on Children, Sociology will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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A well thought out essay

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hustle and bustle. This cannot be denied. It is my intention to sit down and play video games for several hours.

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Summary: "Lord of the Flies" by William Golding

If you order your custom term paper from our custom writing service you will receive a perfectly written assignment on Summary: "Lord of the Flies" by William Golding. What we need from you is to provide us with your detailed paper instructions for our experienced writers to follow all of your specific writing requirements. Specify your order details, state the exact number of pages required and our custom writing professionals will deliver the best quality Summary: "Lord of the Flies" by William Golding paper right on time. Out staff of freelance writers includes over 120 experts proficient in Summary: "Lord of the Flies" by William Golding, therefore you can rest assured that your assignment will be handled by only top rated specialists. Order your Summary: "Lord of the Flies" by William Golding paper at affordable prices!William Golding Lord of the Flies- First Chapter The Sound of the Shell- The aeroplane of a group of British school children crashed on an island in the Pacific.- Two boys can climb out of the wreck first Ralph and Piggy. They reveal that they are alone on this island with no adults.

Cheap custom writing service can write essays on Summary: "Lord of the Flies" by William Golding At the beach they find a big conch shell and use it as a horn. Suddenly more children appear and they meet on the beach.- They become a group of about thirty children aged from 5 to 1 years.- Being assure that rescue is inevitable, they decide to vote for a chief. It is a decision between Ralph and a boy called Jack, leader of a uniformed, marching choir.- Ralph is voted in, because he has possession of the conch.- Immediately Ralph sends out a group to explore, if they are really on an island. They discover that this is true and that the island must be uninhabited.- Jack and Ralph seem to become friends and they have fun together.- The hunters catch a piglet in the jungle, but Jack cannot kill it. He is embarrassed and promises to kill the next time.- Second Chapter Fire on the Mountain- During another meeting Jack insists on a group of hunters and talks excitedly about the piglet.- Ralph begins to lay down first rules. The person who wants to speaks needs to hold the conch shell. No one is allowed to interrupt the holder of the conch except Ralph. The conch begins to symbolize the organization of society.- Then a child is given the conch shell and starts to talk about a "beastie" that he saw in the dark. - Ralph doubts its existence first, but Jacks announces that the hunters will kill the beast, if it does exist.- Then Ralph wants to light a fire on a mountaintop, to help them being rescued from the island.- Everyone is excited and they make a pile of wood on the top of the mountain. Jack, against Piggy's protest, grabs his specs to light the fire with. Piggy comments that the light only produces little smoke.- Jack begins to argue with Piggy, who tells Jack that he has the conch and should not be interrupted.- Jack says, "The conch doesn't count on top of the mountain, so you shut up." Jack is beginning to dislike the rules of the conch.- The hunters have to take shifts in order to keep the fire going. After the fire got out and half of the forest was burned before, Piggy complains about their sense of responsibility. Later, one boy is missing, he must be killed by the flames. The boys cannot believe what they have done.- Third Chapter Huts on the Beach- Days later Jack is still improving his hunting tasks, Ralph and Simon are trying to build huts on the beach.- The other kids are not interested in helping anymore, they rather have fun on the beach.- Jack and Ralph have a first argument Is it more important to hunt or to build huts?- The fear of the "beastie" comes up again, that is why they build huts. Jack feels when he is hunting alone that he is "not hunting but being hunted. As though something is behind you all the time in the jungle."- Jack wants to hunt some pigs again, although Ralph insists that keeping up the signal fire is more important. They start to dislike each other.- Simon finds a clearing in the jungle where he wants to stay sometime.- Fourth Chapter Painted Faces and Long Hair- Jack starts to paint his hunters' faces, gives them a "mask" of painted camouflage.- The mask allows Jack not to worry about rescue and what he knows is right. Behind it he can do what he likes.- Suddenly Ralph recognizes a ship passing the island, but there is only small smoke on the mountaintop. He runs up to the summit, but the fire has gone out, the watchers are gone.- Jake and a crowd of hunters appear at the summit, carrying a dead pig. All they can talk about is the hunt and the kill, they do not care about the fire. When Ralph tells them a ship passed the island they fall silent.- Jack tries to make excuses, but after all Piggy's protests Jack beats him to the ground and one lens of his specs breaks, that lit the fire.- Jack apologizes about the fire, but Ralph does not accept.- Later the fire is re-lit and the pig is roasted, the kids start to dance and chant around the fire.- Ralph calls an assembly although it is dark out.- Fifth Chapter Beast From Water- An assembly is called and Ralph complains about everyone not following the rules.- He tells them that "...we ought to die before we let fire out." He tells the hunters that the fire is more important than a pig.- They are all afraid of the Beast living on the island, it is manifested in the childrens' minds as a lurking animal.- Some children talk about their experiences with the Beast, but these were only nightmares and imaginations. A discussion starts about a beast coming from the water.- Then Simon says "Maybe there is a beast... What I mean is... maybe it's only us." Simon begins to understand what the Beast really is.- Jack does not know why Ralph has the right to make rules. He points out that Ralph cannot hunt, nor can he sing. Ralph counters that he was chosen and that is reason enough.- The assembly breaks up and the hunters do their dance once again. The boys are drifting apart into two groups those who follow Ralph's ideas and those who follow Jack.- In the night Ralph, Simon and Piggy are sitting on the assembly platform listening the cries of the childrens' nightmares.- Sixth Chapter Beast From Air- One night a plane is shot down near the island and the pilot is jumping out opening his parachute. But he is dead before he reaches the land.- The five year old twins called Sam and Eric ("Samneric") are on fire duty, but they have fallen asleep.- They wake up, re-light the fire, and see the "Beast from air". They run to tell Ralph.- As the sun is rising an assembly is called. The kids all believe that they are now in terrible danger, Jack calls for volunteers to help him go to the top and kill it.- It is decided that a party of hunters, plus Ralph and Simon, will go to hunt the Beast.- They trek to the castle and discover that nothing is there. Jack exclaims that the rock would make a great fort. Then they start the journey to the mountain.- Seventh Chapter Shadows and Tall Trees- Simon is sent through the forest to tell Piggy and the others that the hunting party will not be back before dark.- Jack goes to the top and comes back down, reporting that he saw something billowing up on top.- They all climb to the summit and see the Beast. Instead of fighting it and finding out that it is only a man, they run.- As they flee "the creature lifted its head, holding toward them a ruin of a face."Please note that this sample paper on Summary: "Lord of the Flies" by William Golding is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Summary: "Lord of the Flies" by William Golding, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom college paper on Summary: "Lord of the Flies" by William Golding will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality. Order your authentic assignment and you will be amazed at how easy it is to complete a quality custom paper within the shortest time possible!

TEAM

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Internal Strengths and Weaknesses

Strengths

There are several things I feel, or have been told, I am good at. I have always enjoyed physical fitness and everything that goes along with it such as nutrition, lifting weights, jogging, and other forms of exercise. I have even attained a Personal Trainer certification. Although this has been an enjoyment in my life, I am more focused on business and finance as a career so I will narrow the rest of my choices to those that have something to do with business or finance. I like having freedom to make many decisions on my own in a work setting and autonomy has always been a strong point. I am ambitious enough to be able to function alone and without constant input from supervisors. Previous employers have told me that a strength I have is selling. I feel that I can only sell well because I typically truly believe in what I am selling. Another strength of mine flows from my ability to sell. That is the strength of enjoying what I am doing and having pride in my work. People can sense when you enjoy your job and your performance is better too. My people skills also flow from my enjoyment and confidence.

Weaknesses

Some things I am not so good at which are related to business are handling deadlines, coping with micromanagement from several supervisors who are conflicting in their wants, and staying focused when working long hours with little or no time off. I have to admit that I am not great at supervising more than a few workers at a time. It follows that I am not the world's greatest multitasking wiz. I certainly can do it, but not as well as I would like and not as well as I have seen others do it. I also do not enjoy being trapped at a desk job with no opportunity to move around. I need at least a little bit of excitement so it follows that I tend to have a tough time avoiding boredom during repetitive tasks or jobs.

Summary

Strengths Weaknesses

Autonomy Handling deadlines

Selling Handling micromanagement

Enjoyment Staying focused

Pride Supervising many people

People skills Multitasking

Confidence Avoiding boredom

External Opportunities and Threats

Career Opportunities

Industries of Interest

After much laboring, I am confident that I have narrowed the industries I am interested in down to Banking and Financial Planning. Both concern my areas of interest, which are business and finance. Both have to do with the area of accounting, which is what my degree emphasizes. And both are areas where I feel I could excel. I have always been Interested in money and investments and I am currently working in a bank. I actually enjoy the banking environment much more than I had anticipated upon taking the job.

Opportunities and Threats of Banking

Opportunities

One major opportunity in the banking industry is low unemployment. Bankers on every level are afforded the opportunity to always have a job no matter where one lives. There are banks in every city in the United States. Also since the financial service market is growing, so too will the need for banking services. Bank officers enjoy excellent geographic freedom since banks are so abundant.

Threats

While employment is good for bankers, they are susceptible to unemployment during economic recessions, which is the worst time to be out of a job. Of course the most obvious downside to working in a bank is the possibility of being involved in a robbery or extortion attempt. Many people have been permanently scarred by their experiences with bank robberies. Another possible threat is the idea that is currently floating around banks that with so many automated tellers and online banking options, the roles of "brick and mortar" banks may shrink to only a few services performed by only a few individuals.

Opportunities and Threats of Financial Planning

Opportunities

Personal freedom is my favorite opportunity of financial planning. Often Planners are self-employed and this eliminates a couple of my dislikes such as several supervisors and little time off. Financial planners who work 60 hours a week do it because they choose to in order to increase or maintain their business. Not because someone is requiring them to in order to keep their job. Of course another strength is income. According to the Jobs Rated Almanac for 001, the average income for a financial planner is $75,000 a year. Although money is low on my wants for a career, it does help.

America is currently in the longest period of economic growth in its history. With this growth have come many opportunities for financial planners. Jobs have been growing faster than people can fill them. Especially with the baby-boomers reaching retirement age, this growth is expected to remain constant. Finally, a strong plus for Financial Planning is the fact that financial planners, just like accountants are needed just as much in a recession as in a period of growth. Not so much for individuals but as consultants to industry and on the payroll at banks.

Threats

One threat is stress. While the job doesn't rate at the top of stressful jobs in America, one can't deny that risking other people's money and future comes with some degree of stress. Having to tell someone that a choice you made has cost him or her thousands of dollars overnight is not on anyone's list of favorite things but it happens every day. Also, with the rise of on-line investment groups operating with very low transaction fees and free consultation in some cases, the future of financial planners may be dimming.

5-Year Career Objectives

After obtaining my degree, I will obtain a position as a financial planner working for a bank. This way I can have the environment of a bank, which I like, and perform a job which I am very interested in. By working for a bank, I can keep learning and growing in both of the areas I'm interested in. I will begin on salary to become established with a client base. After one year, I will move to commission and hopefully have a salary of at least $50,000 a year. A year after switching to commission I will be promoted to or seek a position as an independent financial planner with no supervisor or partner above me. After more years I will take a new graduate as a junior partner so that I can learn more through teaching what I know to someone else. At this point I plan to be making a minimum of $100,000 a year.

5-Year Career Action Plan

That is where I would like to ultimately be in five years but in the meantime I have to obtain my degree, move up with the bank I am currently at so as to increase my knowledge and weight with the company, and become more educated in finance so that I can make the transition from strictly banking to financial planning for bank customers. After graduation in May of 00, I will take part time classes toward a Master's Degree in Finance. At the time of graduation, I will be promoted to Auditor at the bank. I have already been told to expect a promotion upon attaining my degree so this should not be a problem. I am currently training for the position.

I am not waiting until I graduate to begin learning about investments and finance. I have already begun and will continue to learn for two more years. Then I will move into the position of junior financial planner with the bank I am currently with in 00. If there are no positions available, I will seek the same position with other banks until I find what I want. Upon finding a position, I will continue working toward my Master's Degree and upon attaining it years after obtaining my bachelor degree I will move up to Financial Planner. One year later, five years from now, I will hire a junior partner to help with the business I have generated.

Year 00 Graduate from college

Year 00 - Start Master's Degree in Finance

Junior financial planner for bank

Year 004 Complete Master's degree

Year 005 Obtain Financial Planner position

Year 006 Hire junior partner to help run the business

Please note that this sample paper on TEAM is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on TEAM, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom college paper on TEAM will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Differences between Sparta and Athens / Egypt Reiligeon

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Out staff of freelance writers includes over 120 experts proficient in Differences between Sparta and Athens / Egypt Reiligeon, therefore you can rest assured that your assignment will be handled by only top rated specialists. Order your Differences between Sparta and Athens / Egypt Reiligeon paper at affordable prices with cheap custom writing service! Both cities, had similar governments, but each had a different way of life, each with its own attributes. Sparta was similar to other Greek cities, and art and poetry, particularly choral lyrics flourished, from the 6th century BC on the Spartans, were uptight, and concentrated mostly upon there battlements, no deformed children survived. Sparta had all children that were the age of seven to be trained, and when reached 0, were able to enter war, but also were able to marry. They would have to stay at the barracks, until the age of 0. All Spartans from the age of 0-60 were permitted to serve as hoplites. In 41 BC, war broke out between Sparta, and Athens, and by in 404 BC IT became the dominant of Greek cities leaving Athens in Spartans hands. Sparta was pushed back to its original territory and in 6 AD was destroyed by Goths under king Alaric I.Athens dominates the economic, cultural, and political life of Greece. Athens, was more civilised, and not focused on the whole War life idea, they also had a democracy like Sparta, but was different. Unlike the Spartans, the Athenians, liked entertainment that was produced in the Dionysus. The city itself with its democratic constitution and brilliant way of life became an attraction. At its peak, the population was approximately 00,000 people, which 50,000 were males, and full citizens, and the rest women, slaves, and foreigners. After its clash with Sparta, the city began to decline. Nevertheless, philosopher's schools were founded, and rhetoric was made.Religion was an important role, since the King promises life after death, and those who followed, would have it. The Pharaoh was central to life in Egypt. The Pharaoh settled legal disputes and led in religious rituals, which sustained Egypt. The Pharaoh was not only a god-king, but was responsible for the balance of Ma'at (truth, law and universal order). As long as the Pharaoh worshiped, and followed the laws that the Gods set, everything would not turn to chaos. If he failed, the world would be obliterated. Pharaohs wear things that symbolise their power, the symbols of the Gods were the power of the Pharaohs.The Crook to reward the innocent and the Flail, to punish the guilty. The dual crown shows the authority or leadership over both of the Kingdoms, and the Eye of Ra, seeing what the Pharaoh did, good or evil. At a Pharaohs coronation, a spirit called Horus (the living Pharaoh, light, the sun) entered his body and is believed to guide the Pharaoh along the path of Ma'at. Then when he died his spirit was merged with Osiris from where he could guide his successors. The King and the Priests also supported each other, reassuring that they are loyal to the Gods, and still were divine and superior, if anything went wrong they would not be slaughtered. As the Pharaoh was divine, he also had control over the religion, and led important religious rites, and services. This was only done to reinforce his position. The King's national strength came from the support of the gods and as long as this was maintained no ill could befall the country.

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THE ORIGINS OF NEGRO SLAVERY

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THE ORIGINS OF NEGRO SLAVERY

By Eric E. Williams

Slavery was not born of racism, but racism was the consequence of slavery. The Indians were the first instance of slave trading and slave labor in the New World. England and France followed the Spanish practice of enslavement of the Indians. The only restraint to Indian slavery was to those Indians who refused to accept Christianity and to the warlike Caribs on specious plea that they were cannibals. Negro slavery involved vital imperial interests. Europeans saw that Indian slavery was unprofitable because it was unsuited to the diversified agriculture of these colonies. In addition the Indian slave was inefficient and the Spaniards discovered that one Negro was worth four Indians. Sugar and cotton required strength in which the Indian lacked and demanded the "cotton nigger".

The immediate successor of the Indian slave was that of the poor whites. These white servants called "indentured servants", which signed a contract, indented by law, binding them to service for a stipulated time in return for their passage. There were also others known as "redemptioners", which arranged with the captain of the ship to pay for their passage on arrival and if they did not, they were sold by the captain to the highest bidder. Another type of white servant was a convict, sent out by the deliberate policy of the home government, to serve for a specified period. This temporary service denoted no inferiority or degradation.

Negro slaves had nothing to do with climate. "Its origin can be expressed in three words; in the Caribbean, Sugar; on the mainland, Tobacco and Cotton". Sugar, tobacco, and cotton required the large plantation and hordes of cheap labor, and the small farm of the ex-indentured white servant could not possible survive. Planters could no longer offer white servants the main inducement, land. Planters did want to provide employment for the poor whites, and prevent Negroes from being taught to trade. Many whites wanted to see economic growth, and their victims were the Negroes in Africa and the small white farmers. The plantation economy was based upon tobacco and not sugar. At this point it was seen that Negro slavery cheapened the cost of production. "Slavery from being an insignificant factor in the economic life of the colony, had become the very foundation upon which it was established {11)" The Plantation system formed the industrial and social frame of government, while slavery was a code of written laws enacted for that purpose.

My critique of this article is the blueprint it displays about the development of slavery. When it comes to slavery most people including myself, automatically think about African enslavement. This article shows that slavery actually started with the Indians, then the poor whites, and finally with the Africans. This shows that in the beginning, slavery was not based upon race. Instead it was based upon a group of servants who could make a profit for a few white men. It was only when these slave traders, merchants, and farmers found out that Negroes were stronger and more efficient than the Indians and white servants, that they became part of the slave industry. Negroes in the plantation system became very profitable for Europeans and they justified their actions of forced labor on the bases that Negroes were inferior, and with this reasoning came the beginning of racism.

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How has your professional experience, or community or political involvement prepared you to participate in and contribute to the Summit? What would you like to gain as a result of the experience and how will you use knowledge you gain upon return to your

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During my FSA/FLEX year, I gained lots of very useful knowledge and experience. However I consider that one of the most important things that I learned was volunteerism since I both did volunteer work in the US and learned about it in high school and in general from FSA/FLEX program. This term was new for me because volunteerism was and still is very rare in Tajikistan. People are used to work for money. I think that in order for Tajikistan to develop and resolve many problems both economical and social, people need to learn about volunteerism and do more volunteer work, especially young generation. From the time I came back home, I wanted to do something in order to resolve at least some problems in Tajikistan that make peace in my country very fragile. I always believed that I can do many things by myself but with more people around I can achieve even more. I also realized that in order to reach my goals I need a good education which at that time was very hard to get in my city, Khujand (due to after war period). I traveled to Kyrgyzstan, in order to get admitted to American University of Kyrgyzstan. I successfully passed all the exams and received a full scholarship to study in AUK.

This year I am a senior and during my three years stay in Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan, I did not just study in order to reach my dreams, I tried to gain practical knowledge as well. I made close acquaintance with many Kyrgyz alumni and participated in nearly all FSA/FLEX activities held in Bishkek. I tried to come up with new ideas for fund raising, for example I proposed to bake brownies and apply pies and sale them in international organization, which actually turned out to be a good idea. Over the past five years along with Kyrgyz alumni I frequently visited Cancer Center and Nursing home. This experience has helped me to grow greatly personally and spiritually. By participating in various Kyrgyzstan alumni projects over the past three years, I have learned many traits including leadership, respect and empathy, as well as building wonderful friendships with people of different age, nationality, religion and culture. Besides these, I have also learned valuable skills, improved by Russian, learned some Kyrgyz plus learned how to bake, cook, be an interesting speaker and good listener, improved my public speech.

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Moreover this year I had a great chance to expand my knowledge about volunteer work from Turkish volunteer organization in Istanbul, Turkey called Social Volunteers Foundation (TOG). In Istanbul Bilgi University I had a great chance to attend several lectures on effective ways of attracting people for volunteer activities where I learned how to search for funds, how to satisify both volunteers and people for whom help is provided. For exampe these were the topics that we studies like awareness of individual and social responsibilities, respect to different thoughts, beliefs, ethnic origins and values, understanding of teamwork and many other very useful topics.Also this year I have got an opportunity to take part in Tajik alumni project called Leadership Camp in Varzob. This project was very important for me because I always wanted to participate in projects held by Tajik alumni since I am planning to come back and work with Tajik children and youth. This time I have got a chance to both apply my university knowledge (because I taught a class called Conflict Resolution in Tajikistan) and practical knowledge of working with children since during my volunteer work in Cancer Center, I learn how to interact with children closely, I successfully applied this experience in Leadership Camp in Varzob. I had a great and very useful time during this project because it was one of my first step towards fulfillment of my dream.

I think that I gained quite lots of knowledge, which I could share in the Summit in Kiev both practical and theoretical. I think I am very close to my main dream, which is to open an NGO in Tajikistan and involve youth of Tajikistan in volunteer work. I already contacted with TOG-volunteer organization in Turkey about lending me a helping hand for beginning. I think that Summit in Kiev could also greatly help me to expand my knowledge even more about volunteer activities of alumni from all over Euroasia. To hear about their successful projects, way of doing these projects. For example Leadership Camp in Varzob was a project borrowed from Kyrgyzstan alumni, also called Leadership Camp where I also had a chance to participate. So I strongly believe that successful projects should be borrowed and applied in different states. This is one of the main reasons why I am so eager to take part in Summit since this Summit can give me an opportunity to intact with alumni from different states and listen to their projects and volunteer experiences. I am also very eager to share all the knowledge I have gained, which I think could be also very useful for the participants. -Please note that this sample paper on How has your professional experience, or community or political involvement prepared you to participate in and contribute to the Summit? What would you like to gain as a result of the experience and how will you use knowledge you gain upon return to your is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on How has your professional experience, or community or political involvement prepared you to participate in and contribute to the Summit? What would you like to gain as a result of the experience and how will you use knowledge you gain upon return to your, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom research papers on How has your professional experience, or community or political involvement prepared you to participate in and contribute to the Summit? What would you like to gain as a result of the experience and how will you use knowledge you gain upon return to your will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Ibsen's Ghosts

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Henrik Ibsen's play Ghosts is concerned with challenging the conventional norms of society, many of which he views as "no longer beneficial". Through his characters, Ibsen explores the conflict that arises because of the outdated ideas that people cling to, as is the case with Pastor Manders who is subsequently self-righteous and hypocritical. Ibsen also shows the devastating consequences that the past or "ghosts" can have on people's lives. Osvald for instance, is haunted by his father's "sins" in the way of inherited syphilis. Furthermore, Ibsen demonstrates how traditional ideas can entrap otherwise progressive people, particularly women such as Mrs Alving, who feels she hasn't the strength to "go against" an oppressive, patriarchal society. Ultimately, these "conventional ideas and attitudes" are outdated because they impact adversely on people lives. At the time Ghosts was written (1881), western society was undergoing major changes. Even the Church was having to re-asses its methodology as it was fast losing influence among the middle class; the majority of people. Henceforth, at around this time the church's teachings and methods were greatly revised. Mrs Alving, when replying to a pompous Pastor Manders, gives an example of the church's waning influenceManders "I stand here as a priest, just as I stood before you at the most critical moment of your life."

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Mrs Alving "And what has the Priest to say to me?" Members of the clergy had long been revered as God's representatives on earth, therefore speaking the absolute and were not to be questioned. Not only is Mrs Alving's flippant response a hint of defiance against the church, but also against a man. Her challenging and questioning of mens' authority is a very forward move indeed. Despite this, Pastor Manders is still the embodiment of the old, rigid way of thinking. He is a self-righteous idealist who considers it his role to judge and condemn. "There may still be time to turn him from his sinful ways. Mend your own ways, and save what is left to be saved in him. For the truth is, Mrs Alving, you have failed as a mother, and I consider it my duty to tell you so." From the above excerpt, it can be seen how strongly Pastor Manders clings to the traditional, staunch branch of Christianity, which saw members of the clergy condemn, more than comfort and criticise more than counsel. The decreasing influence of the church provoked fear in many, not least the clergy. This fear led to a suspicion of any ideas or "intellectual trends" which appeared to contradict the Church's teachings. It is suggested that Mrs Alving is reading books, which may do exactly this, possibly she is reading about the growing movement of Women's Suffrage. Pastor Manders indignantly tells herManders "You surely don't imagine I waste my time examining that sort of publication?"Mrs Alving "Which means you know nothing at all about the thing you're denouncing."Pastor Manders "I've read quite enough about such books to disapprove of them."Pastor Manders has not read these books, yet he is quick to abhor them. One cannot form a balanced, reasonable judgement on something when they are basing their argument solely on the opinions of others.Pastor Manders justifies his preconceived ideas about the books by saying "There are many occasions in life when one must rely upon the opinions of others. That is the way of the world. And- rightly too, how else could society continue?"Ibsen regarded this "swapping of opinions between people" as supremely lazy, as it did not call upon the individual to have any independent thought. Ibsen contested that all people must have their own thoughts and opinions. He went as far to say that this was our human obligation "For a student has essentially the same task as the poet to make clear to himself, and thereby to others, the temporal and eternal questions which are astir in the age and in the community to which he belongs." Ibsen despised the way old, unchallenged ideas were relentlessly passed from one person to another, with no thought being made on the receiver's end. In Ibsen's mind these were the "Ghosts"- age-old attitudes which continue to haunt man through their influence.The "Ghost" which haunts Osvald is his inherited syphilis, which he has contracted through no fault of his own. Osvald however is plagued by the fallacy of his father's "good" namePastor Manders "Yes, you've certainly inherited a worthy name from an industrious man my dear Osvald Alving, lets hope it'll be an inspiration to you."Osvald cannot believe that his father led a dissolute life and rejects a Doctor's opinion that his syphilis was inherited. Ibsen describes this by saying "the sins of the father are visited on the son". In this case however, it is also "the sins of the mother which are visited on the son", because had it not been for Mrs Alving's false depiction of Alving, Osvald would freely accept that his syphilis is the unfortunate inheritance from a morally void man. Many would view Osvald's unnecessary guilt and shame, which has been caused and perpetuated by his own mother worse than the disease he has inherited off his father. Therefore the pretence Mrs Alving keeps up for the sake of Alving's good name is a value that would be better to discard in lieu of the harm it can cause.The "Ghost" which haunts Mrs Alving is her adherence to her sometimes-misplaced sense of duty. However Mrs Alving's sense of duty also shows her strength of character in some cases "I had to endure it for my little boy's sake." Had she left the marriage Osvald surely would have suffered, as unmarried women and their children were not looked upon kindly. Despite this, it is because of her sense of duty that she feels she must deceive her son and keep quite about her husband's true nature. It was because of her "duty" towards her class, whose sanctity rests largely on its good name and secrecy surrounding sordid issues, that she endured an intolerable marriage so as not to upset the stability of the bourgeois class "I had to fight twice as hard- a desperate battle so that no one should know what sort of man my child's father was."Mrs Alving is quite an unfortunate character, not only must she contend with a lecherous husband, she must also suffer in silence and shoulder the blame for her husband's shortcomings.Mrs Alving is held accountable for her husband primarily because she is a woman and men in those days were void of moral criticism, terms such as "fallen woman" exemplify the fact that blame for sexual indiscretion was solely the fault of the female. In Mrs Alving's case the downfalls of her husband are somehow her fault. She makes an interesting observation about human nature however when she says"You know how charming Alving was, no one could bring themselves to believe anything but good of him." By this Mrs Alving is saying how the "truth" will seldom interest people if it is too out of character to be believable. People's minds are very simplistic, we want to categorise people as being either "good" or "bad". It is too difficult for many of us to come to terms with the fact that likeable, respectable people can harbour some extremely negative traits or vice versa. Ibsen was adamant to stress the point that no person was either supremely good or evil; every man had pitfalls. He said "Human nature has dark recesses which must be explored and illuminated." Thus it can be said that Ibsen was concerned with creating realistic characters that embody this statement. The old ideas of "good" and "evil" in Ibsen's mind were far too simplistic to be applied to the complex beings that are humans.Ibsen said that recognising this fact was not pessimistic- but liberating "My main goal has been to depict people, human moods and human fates, on the basis of certain pre-dominant social conditions and perceptions. What we see are human conflicts, and enwrapped in these, deep inside, lay ideas at battle- being defeated or charged with victory."Therefore, in his play Ghosts Ibsen is concerned with the moral struggles and conflicts which his characters face, not their "practical" or economic woes.Ibsen was concerned with the emancipation of all people, particularly women who were still very much "trapped" by a rigid, patriarchal society. He said"A woman cannot be herself in the society of the present day, which is an exclusively masculine society, with laws framed by men and with a "judicial system" that "judges" feminine conduct from a masculine point of view.""Feminine conduct being judged from a masculine viewpoint" is unfair, particularly since women did not have the same luxury of judging their male counterparts from a feminine viewpoint. This inequity often led to hypocrisy.Within the play, society's hypocrisy towards women is exemplified by Pastor Manders when he says to Mrs Alving"It is not a wife's place to judge her husband…you deserted the sinner whom you should have helped."In a patriarchal society women were chastised for judging their husbands, but at the same time compelled to help them.Pastor Manders own personal hypocrisy is demonstrated when he says to Mrs Alving"How right I was to be so deeply concerned about your son! In circles where immorality is accepted, even honoured."This outburst is in regards to Osvald's accounts of life within artistic circles in Paris. Manders shows his hypocritical nature when he says of Osvald's father"A piece of unseemly high spirits on his part, Mrs Alving..It can't have been more than high spirits, believe me."Because Alving has a respected name and position in society, Manders finds it impossible to admit to himself that Alving was not the person he thought he was, or that his actions were wrong. If anything, Alving's indiscretions were far worse than the artists, because he was a married man, who belonged to a social class that "hid" his follies, where as the artists are at the forefront of societies criticisms even though they are essentially living as man and wife without the church's approval. This double standard embraced by Manders is grossly unfair, particularly in an age when society was beginning to tolerate couples living out of wedlock, so long as they were not promiscuous, as Alving was in his marriage.Mrs Alving says of Ghosts "I'm haunted by ghosts..But I'm inclined to think that we're all ghosts, Pastor Manders; it's not only the things we've inherited from our fathers and mothers that live on in us, but all sorts of dead ideas and old dead beliefs, and things of that sort…we can't rid ourselves of them."Ibsen is using Mrs Alving as a direct catalyst for his own views on the subject of "ghosts". He himself wrote "we sail, with a corpse in the cargo." Literally meaning a useless, dead weight, which inhibits our progress forward. Thus it can be said that Ibsen aptly summarised the play by calling it "a study of the effects of conventional ideas and attitudes that are no longer beneficial to society." The "ideas and attitudes" are "no longer beneficial to society" because they are inhibiting human progress, if anything they are regressing progress because of the devastating effects they have on people's lives.Thus, Ibsen's play Ghosts is a contrived documentation of a changing society, which was encountering numerous difficulties as people struggled to adapt. These changes had huge implications on almost every facet of life including religion, marriage and family. It is important to note however that not all ideals changed. Fidelity for example, was and still is viewed as extremely important by most people. Ghosts is also a play which illuminates peoples inability to escape from their pasts, or from ideas of the past. All of the characters in the play are plagued by either one of these things, which in turn creates further conflict, such as Pastor Mander's hypocrisy and self-righteousness. Ibsen was determined to show what a devastating impact the "forgotten" past can have in the present and the dangerous nature of outdated ideas that are still put into practise. Every event in the play enforces this, which is a credit to Ibsen's skills as a playwright.

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Mandatory Sentencing

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Mandatory Sentences Effective or Waste of Money?

In the 180's a crime wave swept over American cities. The public and politicians began to complain that offenders were being released before serving terms that were long enough. The states wanted to send a clear message If you do the crime, you will do the time. State legislatures responded by enacting mandatory sentences "a sentence stipulating that some minimum period of incarceration must be served by people convicted of selected crimes, regardless of background or circumstances" (Cole, 00 p. 7). As a part of this "the judge may not consider the circumstances of the offense or the background of the offender, and may not impose sentences that do not involve incarceration" (Cole, 00, p. 7). These mandatory prison sentences are used most often when the crime is of a violent nature, for recurrent criminals, drug offenses, or when firearms are used. These laws have become increasingly popular and are frequently used for drug offenses. Some arguments for and against the use of mandatory minimums are usually seen pertaining to issues such as punishment, fairness, deterrence, and justice. To some proponents of these laws, "the certainty and severity of mandatory minimums make them better able to achieve incarceration's goals than more flexible sentencing policies" (Caulkins, et al., 17). According to them, those goals included punishing offenders and keeping them from committing more crimes as well as deterring others who are not in prison from committing similar crimes. Those against worry that "mandatory minimums foreclose discretionary judgment where it may most be needed, and they fear mandatory minimums result in instances of unjust punishment" (Caulkins, et al., 17). Some examples of these mandatory sentencing laws are "three strikes" or "habitual offender" laws that force judges to give a fixed sentence. Some lawmakers believe that these harsh, inflexible sentencing laws would be seen as a means of deterring others from becoming offenders. The purpose of these laws was to punish the high-level, violent offenders. Are these laws working or are they simply another waste of funds that could be used in better ways?

"Most mandatory sentences were designed as weapons in the drug war with an awful consequence we now live in a country where it's common to get a longer sentence for selling a neighbor a joint then for sexually abusing her" (Cloud, 1). This makes no sense; violent criminals should be seeing the longer sentences. How are these sentences serving as a deterrent? It seems as if it is better in the long run to commit a violent offense, you will serve less time. Some who were once proponents of these sentences are now opposing them. A Princeton professor, John DiIulio Jr., wrote a defense of mandatory sentencing laws in 14 titled "Let ‘Em Rot" now point out "that more young, nonviolent, first time offenders are being incarcerated" and states that "they won't find suitable role models in prison" (Cloud, 1). Sending young offenders away for lengthy sentences where they will serve and interact with other violent individuals increases the chance they will get out and continue to commit more crimes, maybe even more violent ones. With these mandatory sentencing requirements judges and prosecutors are prevented from "offering leniency to juveniles, even when they believe rehabilitation is possible" (Court TV.com, 001).

According to the Drug Policy Alliance, the Rand Corporation found that these types of laws "have had little significant impact on the crime and arrest rates" (Drug Policy Alliance). They also state that according to the Uniform Crime Reports, states without these laws had the lowest rates of index crimes and the highest rate of index crimes were found in the states with these types of laws (Drug Policy Alliance). This doesn't seem to prove the initial idea that these policies will serve as deterrents; in fact, it seems to show the opposite.

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Depending on the state, it costs anywhere from $8,000 to $55,000 per year to lock up a prisoner. Mandatory minimum sentencing laws have contributed to America's prison population and this has caused, from 187 to 18, an increase in state spending on corrections by 0 percent (Drug Policy Alliance, 001). Currently more than "0 percent of all criminal defendants plead guilty", as the sentences get harsher, "fewer defendants will plead guilty" (Constitutional Rights Foundation, 17). This means more defendants will be going to trial and this in turn will clog the courts and cause another increase in spending. With more offenders being sent to prison and these individuals sentenced to serve longer sentences, the prison population will continue to increase. More prisons will be needed due to overcrowding and that means more money will be used for building them. This doesn't seem like an effective use of tax dollars.With tougher economic times some states are now rethinking that costly lockup strategy. The need to close budget gaps may not be the right reason to change the rules but it is a driving force behind it. "Eliminating mandatory minimums for the least-dangerous offenders is helping to free up space in overcrowded prisons to ensure that violent criminals remain locked up" (USA Today.com, 00). Michigan eliminated minimum sentencing, this move is "expected to save $41 million a year and lead to the release of more than 1,100 inmates, some sentenced to 00 years for non-violent offenses" (USA Today.com, 00). Washington also enacted a law that reduces sentences for minor drug offenses. "saving $8 million annually in prison costs. The state is funneling some of that money into drug-treatment programs" (USA Today.com, 00). According to an article titled Let's Repeal Mandatory minimums, a Gallup survey of 50 state and 4 federal judges belonging to the American Bar Association "found that 8% were in favor and 0% opposed" the federal mandatory minimums for drug offenses" (Kopel, 1). If some states are changing these laws and the majority of judges are opposed to the laws why are they still an issue?It's true that reducing crime is a concern to all and deterring crime by punishing offenders with long, harsh sentences seems like an easy way to accomplish this goal. But are these mandatory minimum sentences even fair and do the satisfy justice? It seems by the information provided that these laws create a never-ending cycle of increased spending. Increased sentences create more offenders taking their chances in court, backing up the system, overcrowding the jails and generating the need for more and more money to be spent. The overcrowding in the prisons mean more and more prisons will be needed. It's true, crime needs to be reduced, but there has to be a better and less costly way to do it. ReferencesCaulkins, J. P., Rydell, C. P., Schwabe, W. L., & Chiesa, J. (17). Mandatory Minimum Drug Sentences Throwing Away the Key or the Taxpayers Money?. Retrieved October , 00, from Rand Publications http//www.rand.org/publications/MR/MR87/Cloud, J. (1, February 1). A Get-Tough Policy That Failed. Retrieved October , 00, from http//members.aol.com/digasa/stats.htmConstitutional Rights Foundation.. The Challenge of Violence. Retrieved October 5, 00, from Constitutional Rights Foundation http//www.crf-usa.org/marketing/violence.pdfCourt TV.com. (001, May 18). Recent murder trials sparks debate over Floridas juvenile system. Retrieved October 6, 00, from Court TV.com http//www.courttv.com/trials/brazill/051801_ap.htmlDrug Policy Alliance. (001, March). Mandatory Sentencing. Retrieved October 10, 00, from Publications and Library http//www.drugpolicy.org/library/factsheets/mandatorysentance_factsheet_library.cfmKopel, D. (1). Lets Repeal Mandatory Minimums. The National Law Journal, 15. Retrieved October , 00, from Independence Institute http//ii.org/SuptDocs/Crime/Lets_Repeal_Mandatory_Minimums.htmUSA Today.com. (00, June 0). Easing mandatory sentences requires sound solutions [Editorial/Opinion]. Retrieved October 6, 00, from USA Today.com http//www.usatoday.com/news/opinion/editorials/00-06-0-edit_x.htm

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